Did European colonisation truly elude Ethiopia and Liberia? Who were their colonial masters, if any? And what makes these two African states exceptional in the continent’s colonial history?
Ethiopia (formerly Abyssinia) is widely regarded as the only African country that was never fully colonised. Throughout the Scramble for Africa in the late nineteenth century, Ethiopia resisted repeated attempts by European powers to impose control. Its most significant defence came in 1896, when forces led by Emperor Menelik II decisively defeated an Italian invasion at the historic Battle of Adwa. This victory preserved Ethiopia’s sovereignty and became a global symbol of African resistance and independence.
However, Italy, under Benito Mussolini’s fascist regime, launched a second invasion in 1935. Italian forces captured Addis Ababa in 1936, beginning a military occupation that lasted until 1941. Historians generally do not classify this five-year occupation as full colonisation because it did not result in long-term political control, nor did it dismantle Ethiopia’s existing state structures. Ethiopia remained internationally recognised and was a sovereign member of the League of Nations before the invasion, later becoming a founding member of the United Nations after liberation.
Liberia, by contrast, presents a different but equally unique case. Founded in the 1820s by the American Colonization Society (ACS) as a settlement for freed African-American and Caribbean people, Liberia declared independence in 1847. It was never colonised by a European power, largely because European governments recognised its ties to the United States and did not include it in the formal Scramble for Africa.
Still, Liberia’s status has sparked long-standing academic debate. Some scholars argue that the dominance of Americo-Liberian settlers over the indigenous population resembled a form of settler colonisation. However, this internal dynamic did not equate to external colonial rule by a European state. For this reason, Liberia is generally classified as “never colonised” in the formal geopolitical sense.
In summary, Ethiopia and Liberia stand apart in African history. Ethiopia preserved its sovereignty through military resistance and international recognition, while Liberia maintained independence due to its unique origins and diplomatic ties. Although their paths differed, both countries avoided the formal European colonial domination that reshaped most of the African continent.
